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Operations other than War in the 1990's
Military Operations Other Than
War
By
Dr. David Crist
Since the end of the Cold War Marines have
increasingly been called upon to respond to a growing number of unconventional
crises around the globe. The end of the Soviet Union changed the threats to
the security of the United States as famine, natural disasters, and political
disintegration increasingly required the intervention of armed forces in what
President George Bush termed the New World Order. The Marine Corps' focus on
littoral warfare, its forward deployed presence, and rapid crisis response
capability, make it the natural force of choice to turn to. This has led some
to call the Marine Corps the Nation's 911 force. Disaster and humanitarian
assistance, friendly coalition building, noncombatant emergency evacuations,
counter-drug operations, support for civil authority, all are familiar terms
to Fleet Marine Force personnel over the past decade. Instead of large-scale
conventional war, the American military strategy has focused increasingly on
low intensity conflict and "military operations other than war" (MOOTW).
Correspondingly, Marines find themselves conducting these operations with the
other services in a joint task force command. Also, the nature of these
humanitarian operations call for Marines to work closely with other
governmental agencies such as, the State Department and U.S. Aid for
International Development, as well as the numerous non-governmental relief
agencies and The United Nations.
One of the first MOOTW operation occurred on the
heels of a very traditional conventional war--Desert Storm. In the Spring of
1991, Baghdad began a campaign to suppress the dissident Kurdish minority in
northern Iraq. More than 3/4 of a million displaced civilians were in dire
need of food, water, shelter, and basic medical care as the prospect of
thousands dying from starvation and deprivation loomed large. Marines of the
24th MEU (SOC), commanded by Colonel James L. Jones were some of the first
U.S. forces deployed to the mountains of northern Iraq as part of Operation
Provide Comfort. Operating some 500 miles form their supporting ships, over
3,600 Marines would take part in a three-month operation that successfully
established a safe haven for the Kurds and staved off a humanitarian disaster.
Simultaneously, Marines the of the 5th MEB,
returning through the Indian Ocean from Desert Storm, found themselves tasked
to respond to another humanitarian crisis, in Bangladesh. A 140-mile-per-hour
cyclone had ripped through the impoverished country killing an estimated
139,000 people. The Bangladeshi government requested assistance and President
Bush ordered the deployment of a joint task force, commanded by the CG of III
MEF Major General Henry C. Stackpole III. Augmented with Army special forces
and Air Force assets, 5th MEB and Amphibious Group Three formed the nucleus of
the JTF and Operation Sea Angel. General Stackpole developed a three-phased
campaign plan which focused initially on providing assistance to those in
immediate danger from famine and disease, followed by delivery of supplies and
equipment that would allow the Government of Bangladesh to gradually assume
control over relief operations. On 16 May, Marines and sailors, augmented by a
Japanese contingent, began the first full-scale relief operation. Twenty-eight
helicopters, four LCACs and three LCUs delivered food and medical supplies to
the hard hit areas of Chittagong, Shandwip, Kutiubdia, and Moheshkeli. Marine
helicopters were instrumental in delivering supplies to isolated pockets of
people cut off by the flood waters. By 7 June the situation had stabilized as
the country's infrastructure of roads and ferries were repaired. The efforts
of the U.S. forces in Sea Angel saved countless thousands of lives.
One of the largest post-Cold War humanitarian
operations began on 9 December 1992, when Marines of a Special MAGTF landed in
Somalia, beginning Operation Restore Hope. Famine, caused by political chaos,
threatened the lives of thousands of Somalis and the mission of Restore Hope
was to secure major air and sea ports, key installations and food distribution
points in order to facilitate the free passage of relief supplies threatened
by a multitude of armed warlords. The combined Joint Task Force entitled
UNITAF (United Task Force) commanded by Lt General Robert B. Johnston,
Commanding General I MEF, included an additional 10,000 Marines from the 1st
Division and 1st Marine Aircraft Wing. Equipment was drawn from the
pre-positioning assets based at Diego Garcia in the Indian Ocean. Despite the
limited infrastructure and primitive conditions in Somalia, Marines
successfully secured all major port and airfields and for the first 50 days,
provided all logistical support for U.S. forces ashore. With the arrival of
the Army's 10th Mountain Division and forces from over 23 countries, General
Johnston commanded over 38, 000 troops including 12,000 Marines. U.S. troops
fanned out across the famine belt in and around the capitol of Mogadishu
safeguarding the humanitarian relief operations. In addition to weapons
sweeps, and convoy escorts, UNITAF forces pursued extensive civic action
programs including repairing more than 1200 miles of roads, drilling wells,
and rebuilding hospitals and schools. Coalition force medical personnel
treated thousands of Somalis for everything from bullet wounds to typhoid. By
the end of February 1993, the crisis had largely passed and U.S. forces,
including Marines, were slowly withdrawn. While efforts to rebuild the central
government by The United Nations ultimately failed, Restore Hope succeeded in
saving countless lives threatened by immediate starvation.
Besides humanitarian operations, the most prevalent
of MOOTW operations is the non-combatant evacuation of civilians or NEO. Seven
times since 1990 Marines have been called upon to evacuate civilians
threatened by the anarchy and civil strife in their country. From Somalia
(1990), Liberia (1990, 1996), Rwanda (1994), Sierra Lione (1997), and the
Congo (1997), Marines have responded to the State Department's request to
evacuate embassies and U.S. citizens. Even Europe, too, proved it was not
immune from the strife when Marines of 26 MEU(SOC) executed Operation Silver
Wake in Tirana, Albania, in March 1997. These operations displayed the
versatility and rapid response ability of the MEU. The characteristics of a
NEO operation area rapidly deteriorating political situation coupled with a
collapsing economy where there is inadequate time to build up relief forces to
perform an evacuation of U.S. citizens. Further, there is often not the luxury
of land-based facilities from which to conduct such a large scale evacuation.
Forward deployed and self-sustaining, the Marine Expeditionary Units' possess
the capacity to insert forces by air into an embassy anywhere in the world,
secure it, and then evacuate the U.S. citizens. In Operation Eastern Exit in
1990, Marine helicopters refueled twice in air to reach the embassy in
Somalia; eventually, 281 citizens from over thirty nations were safely
evacuated.
Not all of MOOTW occurred in foreign countries. In
August 1992, Marines were called to provide assistance to Homestead, Florida
following Hurricane Andrew. II MEF formed a Special MAGTF that included both
active and reserve elements. The Marines maintained a temporary tent city for
2,500 displaced civilians. Additionally, Marines distributed needed supplies
and helped restore power to Dade county. That same year, Marines from the 2d
FSSG participated in Operation Guantanamo, which provided temporary
humanitarian assistance to Haitians fleeing to the U.S. to escape political
upheaval at home. At its height, the tent camps at Guantanamo Bay housed over
15,000 refuges. These camps were back in operation again in 1993 and 1994 as
Marines helped safeguard Cuban refuges trying to flee economic hardship and
repression. Along the Mexican border, Marines have actively engaged in
providing assistance to the nation's counter-drug effort as part of Joint Task
Force Six. Between October 1994 and September 1995, for example, Marines
participated in 74 counter drug missions, performing supporting roles to U.S.
law enforcement by providing observation, radar support and cargo inspection.
Also Marines have been called upon to support civilian authority from
combating forest fires in the western U.S. to restoring order in Los Angeles
following the 1992 riots in Los Angeles.
The military operations other than war have increased in frequency and this high pace of operations has continued unabated as Marines are increasingly tasked to assist in these humanitarian and civic action missions. In 1992 alone, Marines executed nine non-combative operations. Marines have deployed to every ocean and covered such diverse operations as disaster relief in Guam to drug-interdiction along the U.S. border. Operations other than war have come to dominate Marine Corps operations that the Marine Corps has significantly expanded traditional training resulting in the employment of new non-lethal methodology.
